SECOND LANGUAGE RESEARCH

Volume 39, Issues 1-2, 2023

目录

Issue 1

Special Issue: Study Abroad and Input

■ Input in study abroad and views from acquisition: Focus on constructs, operationalization and measurement issues: Introduction to the special issue by Jonas Granfeldt, Marianne Gullberg, Carmen Muñoz, Pages 3–11.

■ Audio-visual input for learning L2 vocabulary and grammatical constructions, by Carmen Muñoz, Geòrgia Pujadas, Anastasiia Pattemore, Pages 13–37.

■ Reviewing the potential of the Experience Sampling Method (ESM) for capturing second language exposure and use, by Henriette L Arndt, Jonas Granfeldt, Marianne Gullberg, Pages 39–58.

■ Documenting L2 input and interaction during study abroad: Approaches, instruments and challenges, by Rosamond Mitchell, Pages 59–83.

■ The interactional ecology of homestay experiences: Locating input within participation and membership, by Tim Greer, Johannes Wagner, Pages 85–113.

■ Input in the digital wild: Online informal and non-formal learning and their interactions with study abroad, by Geoffrey Sockett, Pages 115–132.

■ The time-course of competition from the L1 grammar in L2 sentence processing: Evidence from cross-linguistic structural priming, by Holger Hopp, Theres Grüter, Pages 133–159.

■ Object clitic use and intuition in the Spanish of heritage speakers from Brazil, by Julio César López Otero, Alejandro Cuza, Jian Jiao, Pages 161–183.

■ Focus at the syntax–discourse interface in L2 Spanish: Optionality and unaccusativity reconsidered, by Timothy Gupton, Silvia Sánchez Calderón, Pages 185–229.

■ Examining transfer in the acquisition of the count/mass distinction in L2 English, by Wenting Tang, Robert Fiorentino, Alison Gabriele, Pages 231–257.

■ On segmental representations in second language phonology: A perceptual account, by Fernanda Barrientos, Pages 259–285.

Research Note

■ Phonological redeployment and the mapping problem: Cross-linguistic E-similarity is the beginning of the story, not the end, by John Archibald, Pages 287–297.

Issue 2

Articles

■ The production and comprehension of Spanish se use in L2 and heritage Spanish, by Aída García-Tejada, Alejandro Cuza, Eduardo Gerardo Lustres Alonso, Pages 301–331.

■ Spoken word recognition in a second language: The importance of phonetic details, by Félix Desmeules-Trudel, Tania S. Zamuner, Pages 333–362.

■ Comprehension benefits of visual-gestural iconicity and spatial referencing, by Emily Saunders, David Quinto-Pozos, Pages 363–386.

■ L1 phonological effects on L2 (non-)naïve perception: A cross-language investigation of the oral–nasal vowel contrast in Brazilian Portuguese, by Ruth Maria Martinez, Heather Goad, Michael Dow, Pages 387–423.

■ The complex relationship between conscious/unconscious learning and conscious/unconscious knowledge: The mediating effects of salience in form–meaning connections, by Junya Fukuta, Junko Yamashita, Pages 425–446.

■ The role of L1 reading direction on L2 perceptual span: An eye-tracking study investigating Hindi and Urdu speakers, by Leigh B Fernandez, Ricarda Bothe, Shanley EM Allen, Pages 447–469.

■ Promoting L2 acquisition of multiword units through textually enhanced audiovisual input: An eye-tracking study, by Eva Puimège, Maribel Montero Perez, Elke Peters, Pages 471–492.

■ Different effects of L1 and L2 phonology on L3 lexical learning: An ERP study, by Stanislav Mulík, Haydée Carrasco-Ortiz, Pages 493–518.

■ Morphological generalization in heritage speakers: The Turkish aorist, by Serkan Uygun, Lara Schwarz, Harald Clahsen, Pages 519–538.

■ Similarity-based interference and relative clauses in second language processing, by Ian Cunnings, Hiroki Fujita, Pages 539–563.

Research Note

■ Orthography does not hinder non-native production learning in children, by Katja Immonen, Kimmo U Peltola, Henna Tamminen, Paavo Alku, Maija S Peltola, Pages 565–577.

摘要

Input in study abroad and views from acquisition: Focus on constructs, operationalization and measurement issues: Introduction to the special issue

Jonas Granfeldt, Marianne Gullberg, Lund University, Sweden

Carmen Muñoz, University of Barcelona, Spain

Abstract This article briefly discusses the notion of input in a study abroad perspective, situating it against how input is treated in second language acquisition (SLA) more broadly, with a focus on methodological issues, operationalizations, and measurements. It further introduces three studies that examine input as studied in ‘the real wild’, and two studies that instead focus on ‘the digital wild’.

Key words input, measurement, method, study abroad, tasks

Audio-visual input for learning L2 vocabulary and grammatical constructions

Carmen Muñoz, Geòrgia Pujadas, Anastasiia Pattemore, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain

Abstract This article addresses the benefits of audio-visual input for learning second language (L2) vocabulary and grammatical constructions. Specifically, it explores the role of frequency, the effects of subtitles and captions, and the mediating role of learner proficiency on language gains in two longitudinal studies. Study 1 targets vocabulary acquisition in two groups of adolescents with an elementary L2 proficiency level who view 24 episodes of a TV series spread weekly over a whole academic year, one group with subtitles (first language) and one with captions (second language). Study 2 targets grammar acquisition in two groups of university students with an intermediate proficiency level who view 10 episodes over five weeks, one group with captions and one without captions. Results of both studies show significant correlations between language gains and frequency in the input, but the size of the frequency effect appears to depend on the type of support provided by the on-screen text. The analyses also show no significant advantage of captions or subtitles for vocabulary learning at this proficiency level, a significant advantage of captions over no captions for grammatical constructions learning, as well as the significant role of proficiency. It is concluded that viewing audio-visual material leads to L2 learning and it can support learners in their preparation for study abroad and maximize their learning experience during their sojourn.

Key words audio-visual input, captions, frequency, grammatical constructions, multimodal input, subtitles, vocabulary

Reviewing the potential of the Experience Sampling Method (ESM) for capturing second language exposure and use

Henriette L Arndt, Jonas Granfeldt, Marianne Gullberg, Lund University, Sweden

Abstract Frequent language exposure and use are among the most important conditions for successful language learning, whether in classrooms, during study abroad, or in other informal contexts. Research probing exposure and usage often relies on one-off self-report questionnaires in which participants estimate their typical level of language exposure over extended periods of time, often long after it occurred. This may negatively affect the validity of the resulting data. This article instead explores the potential of methods used in medical and psychological research, variably known as the Experience Sampling Method (ESM), Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA), or diary methods. These methods are often combined with electronic and mobile survey applications to elicit self-report assessments at frequent, sometimes randomized intervals. We consider the possibilities of these methods for strengthening research into language exposure and use, second language acquisition more broadly, and study abroad research specifically. The methods have the potential to drastically reduce biases associated with summative recall. Additionally, they enable researchers to collect richer data about how individuals engage with language differently over time, and the contexts in which they do so, thus ultimately contributing to our understanding of individual differences in language acquisition.

Key words diary methods, Ecological Momentary Assessment, Experience Sampling Method, informal learning, language exposure and use, language input, research methods, study abroad

Documenting L2 input and interaction during study abroad: Approaches, instruments and challenges

Rosamond Mitchell, University of Southampton, UK

Abstract A major rationale for study abroad (SA) from the perspective of second language acquisition is the presumed opportunity available to sojourners for naturalistic second language (L2) “immersion”. However, such opportunities are affected by variations in the linguistic, institutional and social affordances of SA, in different settings. They are also affected by the varying agency and motivation of sojourners in seeking second language (L2) engagement. For example, many sojourners prioritize mastering informal L2 speech, while others prioritize academic and professional registers including writing. Most will operate multilingually, using their home language, a local language, and/or English as lingua franca for different purposes, and the types of input they seek out, and language practices they enter into, vary accordingly. Consequently, while researchers have developed varied approaches to documenting L2 engagement, and have tried to relate these to measures of L2 development, these efforts have so far seen somewhat mixed success. This article reviews different approaches to documenting SA input and interaction; first, that of participant self-report, using questionnaires, interviews, journals, or language logs. Particular attention is paid to the popular Language Contact Profile (LCP), and to approaches drawing on Social Network Analysis. The limitations of all forms of self-report are acknowledged. The article also examines the contribution of direct observation and recording of L2 input and interaction during SA. This is a significant alternative approach for the study of acquisition, but one which poses theoretical, ethical and practical challenges. Researchers have increasingly enlisted participants as research collaborators who create small corpora through self-recording with L2 interlocutors. Analyses in this tradition have so far prioritized interactional, pragmatic and sociocultural development, in learner corpora, over other dimensions of second language acquisition (SLA). The theoretical and practical challenges of corpus creation in SA settings and their wider use to promote understandings of informal L2 learning are discussed.

Key words input and interaction, research methods, study abroad

The interactional ecology of homestay experiences: Locating input within participation and membership

Tim Greer, Kobe University, Japan

Johannes Wagner, University of Southern Denmark, Denmark

Abstract Study abroad homestays are generally assumed to provide visitors with opportunities to learn language ‘in the wild’ by participating in the host family’s everyday life. Ultimately such participation is accomplished via individual episodes of interaction as the visitor is socialized into the family’s mundane routines and rituals. Building on research into second language interaction in the lifeworlds of learners beyond the classroom, this study considers (1) how interactants in one homestay context draw on a range of ecologically available resources to co-accomplish participation and membership, and (2) how such participation affords the guest with an expanding repertoire of resources, including linguistic elements and new participatory practices. The study uses multimodal conversation analysis (CA) to discuss two extended extracts from naturally occurring interaction collected between a novice L2 English speaker and his homestay family. The analysis suggests that language learning is more complex than the mere provision of linguistic input: new lexical items and practices emerge within the interactants’ respective lifeworlds in relation to locally situated contingencies, and can be occasioned and explained via recourse to a range of material and embodied affordances beyond just language. Input, therefore, is sequentially and ecologically located in the broader business of an ongoing collective sociality and primarily serves the two key interactional imperatives of progressivity and intersubjectivity.

Key words homestay interaction, language learning in the wild, lifeworld, membership, multimodal conversation analysis, participation

Input in the digital wild: Online informal and non-formal learning and their interactions with study abroad

Geoffrey Sockett, Université Paris Cité, France

Abstract As research into online informal language learning (OILL) develops as a field, the impact on such practices for a wide variety of contexts can be considered. In the case of this publication, the study abroad (SA) context is of particular interest. Indeed the study abroad student may interact with a range of online learning resources in formal, non-formal and informal contexts before during and after mobility. This review article looks at both Online Informal Language Learning and non-formal learning activities relevant to SA, with particular focus on the Erasmus + online learning support (OLS) platform and popular commercial non-formal learning apps such as Duolingo and Busuu. Such informal and non-formal learning activities also interact with formal language learning offered to SA students, some of which may also take place online. Formal, non-formal and informal learning can therefore be seen to constitute a personal learning environment (PLE) which is specific to each learner. Complex systems views of language learning, including usage based approaches and cognitive grammar, form a useful theoretical framework for understanding how second language (L2) skills may develop as learners are exposed to frequently occurring prototypes in salient contexts in input. While it is now widely accepted that such exposure has a significant impact on comprehension levels, research continues into individual differences between learners in terms of exposure time and cognitive, affective and linguistic engagement with the target materials. Data will be presented indicating that while formal and non-formal learning activities involve exposure times which are often insufficient for significant language development when taken in isolation, informal learning activities offer exposure times and forms of engagement which support language development for many learners. Issues surrounding the assessment and certification of linguistic skills gained outside the classroom are addressed in conclusion.

Key words complex systems, informal learning, non-formal learning, online learning, study abroad

The time-course of competition from the L1 grammar in L2 sentence processing: Evidence from cross-linguistic structural priming

Holger Hopp, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Germany

Theres Grüter, University of Hawai‘i, USA

AbstractIn two visual-world eye-tracking experiments, we explore the extent to which conflicting first-language (L1) based grammatical parses influence second-language (L2) learners’ on-line and off-line interpretation of sentences in the L2. We used cross-linguistic structural priming to potentially boost competition from the L1 grammar during the processing of wh-questions in English. For L1-German learners (Experiment 1), sentence-final interpretations showed effects of conflicting L1 parses in the greater number of misinterpretations of English subject as object wh-questions than vice versa. In a follow-up experiment with a comparison group of L1-Japanese learners (Experiment 2), we found the reverse pattern in sentence-final interpretations, with lower accuracy on English object than subject wh-questions. The asymmetry in comprehension accuracy between Experiments 1 and 2 demonstrated that the effect observed among L1-German learners reflected grammar competition from the L1 rather than general L2 effects. In both experiments, we observed cross-linguistic priming from L1 object questions to L2 object questions in on-line processing. Yet, cross-linguistic priming did not enhance competition from L1 object questions on L2 subject questions in Experiment 1 as reflected in comprehension accuracy or eye-gaze during processing. Together, these findings present evidence of cross-linguistic structural priming for equivalent interpretations (object–object), but indicate that priming does not extend to competing L1 interpretations of word-order equivalent structures cross-linguistically (object–subject). We suggest that interference from conflicting L1-based grammatical parses is narrowly delimited in intermediate to advanced L2 sentence processing.

Key words L1 effects, sentence processing, syntactic priming

Object clitic use and intuition in the Spanish of heritage speakers from Brazil

Julio César López Otero, University of Houston, USA

Alejandro Cuza 

Jian Jiao, Purdue University, USA

Abstract The present study examines the production and intuition of Spanish clitics in clitic left dislocation (CLLD) structures among 26 Spanish heritage speakers (HSs) born and raised in Brazil. We tested clitic production and intuition in contexts in which Spanish clitics vary as a function of the semantic features of the object that they refer to. Results showed overextension of object clitics into contexts in which null objects were expected. Furthermore, we found higher levels of overextension among the HSs with lower patterns of heritage language use. Results are discussed along the lines of the model of heritage language acquisition and maintenance.

Key words CLLD structures, object clitics, Spanish heritage speakers, Spanish–Portuguese bilinguals

Focus at the syntax–discourse interface in L2 Spanish: Optionality and unaccusativity reconsidered

Timothy Gupton, University of Georgia, USA

Silvia Sánchez Calderón, National University of Distance Education (UNED), Spain

Abstract We examine the second language (L2) acquisition of variable Spanish word order by first language (L1) speakers of English via the acquisition of unaccusative and transitive predicates in various focus-related contexts. We employ two bimodal linguistic tasks: (1) acceptability judgment task (B-AJT) and (2) appropriateness preference task (B-APT). Both present contextualized prompts similar to previous studies, followed by response options with accompanying audio to control for intonation and pauses. Results suggest a number of key findings: (1) by the high intermediate level, L2ers acquire the relevant syntactic and syntax information structure interface competencies for both predicate types; (2) native speakers and L2 groups exhibit optionality, and only differ in nuanced ways; and (3) advanced learners show signs of acquiring syntactic and syntax–information structure competencies in numerous contexts, but display minor differences regarding optionality with corrective focus, an interface incorporating multiple interfaces (syntax–prosody pragmatics). Unlike the predictions of the Interface Hypothesis (IH), this subtle, non-native-like divergence is characterized by divergent knowledge of optionality similar to that found among native speakers. Attempting to understand more completely the development of native-speaker optionality, we also conduct a corpus study of child-directed Spanish from CHILDES and find that, although syntactic theory explains much of the data, it cannot account for all of the variability in the data. Results suggest that children are exposed to apparent optionality from the earliest stages.

Key words discourse, English, information structure, Spanish, syntax–focus interface, unaccusativity

Examining transfer in the acquisition of the count/mass distinction in L2 English

Wenting Tang, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, China

Robert Fiorentino

Alison Gabriele, University of Kansas, USA

Abstract We investigate whether second language (L2) learners of English rely on first language (L1) transfer and atomicity in the acquisition of the count/mass distinction by examining L1-French and L1-Chinese learners of English. Atomicity encodes whether a noun contains ‘atoms’ or minimal elements that retain the property of the noun. As a semantic universal, atomicity holds across languages. However, the count/mass status of nouns may differ cross-linguistically. Our results, which show difficulty on atomic mass nouns in both learner groups, support an argument that atomicity is used as a semantic universal in the L2. Our results also suggest that both count/mass status in the L1 and word frequency in the L2 impact performance, suggesting roles for both L1 lexical transfer and lexical frequency. In addition, learners had better performance on abstract as opposed to concrete atomic mass nouns, providing evidence consistent with a theory of the accessibility of atoms.

Key words atomicity, count/mass distinction, L2 learners, lexical frequency, transfer

On segmental representations in second language phonology: A perceptual account

Fernanda Barrientos, University of Konstanz, Germany

Abstract The extent to which exposure to new phonemic contrasts (i.e. contrasts that are present in the L2 but not in the L1) will lead to the creation of a new phonemic category in L2 speakers, as well as the phonological nature of these categories, remains an open question insofar as there is no consensus on whether acquiring a new contrast would result in abstract, phoneme-like categories, or if they belong to a less abstract level of representation. This work explores the perception of the /ɑ/–/ʌ/ contrast (cop – cup) in American English by Spanish speakers of L2 English through a discrimination task. The results show that while the interlanguage state of less experienced learners is best described as a case of single-category assimilation, the interlanguage state achieved by advanced learners is not a full phonemic split, despite the increased sensitivity to otherwise within-category perceptual cues; rather, it seems that while the ability to perceive differences is not affected, the ability to create a new phonemic representation is impaired.

Key words L2 phonology, representations, speech perception

Phonological redeployment and the mapping problem: Cross-linguistic E-similarity is the beginning of the story, not the end

John Archibald, University of Victoria, Canada

Abstract In this research note I want to address some misunderstandings about the construct of redeployment and suggest that we need to fit these behavioural data from Yang, Chen and Xiao (YCX) into a broader context. I will suggest that these authors’ work is not just about the failure of three models to predict equivalence classification. Equivalence classification is not the end of the story but only the beginning. We need to look at what cues are detected in the input, which subset of the input becomes intake, and how this intake is parsed onto phonological structures. The empirical results of YCX should not be viewed as some sort of non-result inasmuch as none of the proposed predictors of Mandarin equivalence classification foresaw that the Russian prevoiced stops and short-lag stops would be equated with the Mandarin short-lag stops. Rather, the empirical results need to be contextualized by considering such factors as cue reweighting as part of the learning theory which maps intake onto phonological representations. In this light, the results are not a repudiation of phonological redeployment, but help to shed light on the parsing of the acoustic signal, the importance of robust burst-release cues, and the non-local nature of L2 phonological learning (as opposed to noticing).

Key words cue re-weighting, L2 phonology, learnability, redeployment

The production and comprehension of Spanish se use in L2 and heritage Spanish

Aída García-Tejada, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain

Alejandro Cuza, Purdue University, USA

Eduardo Gerardo Lustres Alonso, Universitat de les Illes Balears, Spain

Abstract Previous studies in the acquisition of clitic se in Spanish have focused on the syntactic processes needed to perform detransitivization. However, current approaches on event structure reveal that se encodes aspectual information which is crucial for its acquisition. We examine the use, intuition and interpretation of the aspectual features constraining the clitic se in Spanish with physical change of state verbs and psychological verbs in declarative sentences, and in a set of why-questions. Twenty Spanish heritage speakers (HSs), 20 English-speaking L2 learners of Spanish, and 20 Spanish monolingual speakers participated in the study. Results showed a clear advantage among the HSs over the L2 learners across conditions. In general, the use of se with change of state verbs at advanced levels of proficiency seems to be harder to acquire than with psych verbs due to the aspectual morphological marking in L1 English. Interestingly, L2 learners and HSs were less sensitive to the [+inchoative] feature with psych verbs in why-questions. Results are also discussed in terms of the age of onset of bilingualism as an affecting factor on the acquisition of the aspectual values of inchoative se.

Key words clitic se, cross-linguistic influence, heritage language acquisition, L2 Spanish, second language acquisition

Spoken word recognition in a second language: The importance of phonetic details

Félix Desmeules-Trudel, University of Toronto Mississauga; University of Ottawa, Canada

Tania S. Zamuner, University of Ottawa, Canada

Abstract Spoken word recognition depends on variations in fine-grained phonetics as listeners decode speech. However, many models of second language (L2) speech perception focus on units such as isolated syllables, and not on words. In two eye-tracking experiments, we investigated how fine-grained phonetic details (i.e. duration of nasalization on contrastive and coarticulatory nasalized vowels in Canadian French) influenced spoken word recognition in an L2, as compared to a group of native (L1) listeners. Results from L2 listeners (English-native speakers) indicated that fine-grained phonetics impacted the recognition of words, i.e. they were able to use nasalization duration variability in a way similar to L1-French listeners, providing evidence that lexical representations can be highly specified in an L2. Specifically, L2 listeners were able to distinguish minimal word pairs (differentiated by the presence of phonological vowel nasalization in French) and were able to use variability in a way approximating L1-French listeners. Furthermore, the robustness of the French “nasal vowel” category in L2 listeners depended on age of exposure. Early bilinguals displayed greater sensitivity to some ambiguity in the stimuli than late bilinguals, suggesting that early bilinguals had greater sensitivity to small variations in the signal and thus better knowledge of the phonetic cue associated with phonological vowel nasalization in French, similarly to L1 listeners.

Key words eye-tracking, second language, speech perception, spoken word recognition, vowel nasalization

Comprehension benefits of visual-gestural iconicity and spatial referencing

Emily Saunders, San Diego State University / University of California, San Diego, USA

David Quinto-Pozos, The University of Texas at Austin, USA

Abstract Studies have shown that iconicity can provide a benefit to non-signers during the learning of single signs, but other aspects of signed messages that might also be beneficial have received less attention. In particular, do other features of signed languages help support comprehension of a message during the process of language learning? The following exploratory study investigates the comprehension of sentences in two signed and two spoken languages by non-signers and by American Sign Language (ASL) learners. The design allows for the examination of message comprehension, with a comparison of unknown spoken and signed languages. Details of the stimulus sentences are provided in order to contextualize features of the signing that might be providing benefits for comprehension. Included in this analysis are aspects of the sentences that are iconic and spatially deictic – some of which resemble common gestural forms of communication. The results indicate that iconicity and referential points in signed language likely assist with comprehension of sentences, even for non-signers and for a signed language that the ASL signers have not studied.

Key words comprehension, iconicity, second language learning, signed language, spatial deixis

L1 phonological effects on L2 (non-)naïve perception: A cross-language investigation of the oral–nasal vowel contrast in Brazilian Portuguese

Ruth Maria Martinez, University of Toronto, Canada

Heather Goad, McGill University, Canada

Michael Dow, Université de Montréal, Canada

Abstract Feature-based approaches to acquisition principally focus on second language (L2) learners’ ability to perceive non-native consonants when the features required are either contrastively present or entirely absent from the first language (L1) grammar. As features may function contrastively or allophonically in the consonant and/or vowel systems of a language, we expand the scope of this research to address whether features that function contrastively in the L1 vowel system can be recombined to yield new vowels in the L2; whether features that play a contrastive role in the L1 consonant system can be reassigned to build new vowels in the L2; and whether L1 allophonic features can be ‘elevated’ to contrastive status in the L2. We examine perception of the oral–nasal contrast in Brazilian Portuguese listeners from French, English, Caribbean Spanish, and non-Caribbean Spanish backgrounds, languages that differ in the status assigned to [nasal] in their vowel systems. An AXB discrimination task revealed that, although all language groups succeeded in perceiving the non-naïve contrast /e/–/ẽ/ due to their previous exposure to Québec French while living in Montréal, Canada, only French and Caribbean Spanish speakers succeeded in discriminating the naïve contrast /i/–/ĩ/. These findings suggest that feature redeployment at first exposure is only possible if the feature is contrastive in the L1 vowel system (French) or if the feature is allophonic but variably occurs in contrastive contexts in the L1 vowel system (Caribbean Spanish). With more exposure to a non-native contrast, however, feature redeployment from consonant to vowel systems was also supported, as was the possibility that allophonic features may be elevated to contrastive status in the L2.

Key words English, French, features, nasal vowels, perception, Portuguese, redeployment, second language acquisition, Spanish

The complex relationship between conscious/unconscious learning and conscious/unconscious knowledge: The mediating effects of salience in form–meaning connections

Junya Fukuta, Chuo University, Japan

Junko Yamashita, Nagoya University, Japan

Abstract This study investigates how implicit and explicit learning and knowledge are associated, by focusing on the salience of target form–meaning connections. The participants were engaged in incidental learning of artificial determiner systems that included grammatical rules of [± plural] (a taught rule), [± actor] (a more salient hidden rule), and [± animate] (a less salient hidden rule). They completed immediate and delayed post-tests by means of a two-alternative forced-choice task with subjective judgments of source attributions. Awareness during the learning phase was identified through analysis of thinking aloud protocols. The results did not support a one-to-one relation between either explicit learning and conscious knowledge, or implicit learning and unconscious knowledge; rather, they indicated that implicit and explicit learning are intricately linked to conscious and unconscious knowledge mediated by the salience of form–meaning connections in target items. This result also suggests the possibility of the later emergence of knowledge without any conscious awareness of it.

Key words implicit and explicit learning, learning without awareness, salience, (un)conscious knowledge

The role of L1 reading direction on L2 perceptual span: An eye-tracking study investigating Hindi and Urdu speakers

Leigh B Fernandez, Technische Universität Kaiserslautern, Germany

Ricarda Bothe, University of Göttingen, Germany

Shanley EM Allen, Technische Universität Kaiserslautern, Germany

Abstract In the current study we used the gaze-contingent moving window paradigm to directly compare the second language (L2) English perceptual span of two groups that speak languages with essentially the same lexicon and grammar but crucially with different writing directions (and scripts): Hindi (read left to right) and Urdu (read right to left). This is the first study to directly compare first language (L1) speakers of languages that differ primarily in reading direction in a common L2, English. While Urdu speakers had a slightly faster reading rate, we found no additional differences between Hindi and Urdu speakers when reading L2 English; both groups showed a perceptual span between 9 and 11 characters to the right of the fixation based on saccade length. This suggests little to no influence of L1 reading direction on L2 perceptual span, but rather that L2 perceptual span is influenced by allocation of attention during reading. Our data are in line with research by Leung et al. (2014) finding that L2 speakers have a smaller perceptual span than native speakers (L1 perceptual span is approximately 15 characters to the right of the fixation). This most likely stems from the increased demands associated with reading in a second language, which led to a reduction in the amount of attention that can be allocated outside of the current fixation.

Key words eye-tracking, perceptual span, reading direction

Promoting L2 acquisition of multiword units through textually enhanced audiovisual input: An eye-tracking study

Eva Puimège, KU Leuven, Belgium

Maribel Montero Perez, Ghent University, Belgium

Elke Peters, KU Leuven, Belgium

Abstract This study examines the effect of textual enhancement on learners’ attention to and learning of multiword units from captioned audiovisual input. We adopted a within-participants design in which 28 learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) watched a captioned video containing enhanced (underlined) and unenhanced multiword units. Using eye-tracking, we measured learners’ online processing of the multiword units as they appeared in the captions. Form recall pre- and posttests measured learners’ acquisition of the target items. The results of mixed effects models indicate that enhanced items received greater visual attention, with longer reading times, less single word skipping and more rereading. Further, a positive relationship was found between amount of visual attention and learning odds: items fixated longer, particularly during the first pass, were more likely to be recalled in an immediate posttest. Our findings provide empirical support for the positive effect of visual attention on form recall of multiword units encountered in captioned television. The results also suggest that item difficulty and amount of attention were more important than textual enhancement in predicting learning gains.

Key words audiovisual input, eye-tracking, formulaic language, textual enhancement

Different effects of L1 and L2 phonology on L3 lexical learning: An ERP study

Stanislav Mulík, Haydée Carrasco-Ortiz, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, México

Abstract This study investigated the influence of phonological word representations from both first language (L1) and second language (L2) on third language (L3) lexical learning in L1-dominant Spanish–English bilinguals. More specifically, we used event-related potentials (ERPs) to determine whether L1 Spanish and L2 English phonology modulates bilinguals’ brain response to newly learned L3 Slovak words, some of which had substantial phonological overlap with either L1 or L2 words (interlingual homophones) in comparison to matched control words with little or no phonological overlap. ERPs were recorded from a group of 20 Spanish–English bilinguals in response to 120 auditory Slovak words, both before and after a three-day-long learning period during which they associated the L3 Slovak novel words with their L1 Spanish translations. Behaviorally, both L1 Spanish and L2 English homophony facilitated the learning of L3 Slovak words in a similar manner. In contrast, the electrophysiological results of the post-training ERPs, but not the pre-training ERPs, showed an N100 effect for L2 English interlingual homophones and opposite N400 effects for L1 Spanish and L2 English interlingual homophones in comparison to control words. These findings suggest different neurocognitive mechanisms in the use of L1 and L2 phonological information when learning novel words in an L3.

Key words bilingualism, event-related potentials, interlingual homophones, language non-selective access, third language learning, word learning

Morphological generalization in heritage speakers: The Turkish aorist

Serkan Uygun, University of Potsdam, Germany

Lara Schwarz, Technical University Dortmund, Germany

Harald Clahsen, University of Potsdam, Germany

Abstract Heritage speakers (HS) have been shown to experience difficulties with inflectional morphology (particularly with irregular morphology) and to frequently overapply regular morphology. The present study seeks to get further insight into the inflectional processes of HS by investigating how these are generalized to nonce words in language production, the first study of this kind for heritage Turkish. We specifically examined morphological generalization processes in the Turkish aorist which – unusual for this language – includes both regular and irregular forms. A written elicited-production experiment containing nonce verbs with varying degrees of similarity to existing verbs was administered to Turkish HS and native monolingually-raised Turkish speakers (MS). We also explored how well a formal model that was trained on a large lexical corpus of Turkish matches the human speakers’ performance. Our main finding is that HS employ both similarity-based and rule-based mechanisms for morphological generalization of the Turkish aorist, with subtle differences to the way these mechanisms are applied by Turkish MS.

Key words aorist, Gradient Symbolic Computation, heritage speakers, Turkish, variability

Similarity-based interference and relative clauses in second language processing

Ian Cunnings, Hiroki Fujita,  University of Reading, UK

Abstract Relative clauses have long been examined in research on first (L1) and second (L2) language acquisition and processing, and a large body of research has shown that object relative clauses (e.g. ‘The boy that the girl saw’) are more difficult to process than subject relative clauses (e.g. ‘The boy that saw the girl’). Although there are different accounts of this finding, memory-based factors have been argued to play a role in explaining the object relative disadvantage. Evidence of memory-based factors in relative clause processing comes from studies indicating that representational similarity influences the difficulty associated with object relatives as a result of a phenomenon known as similarity-based interference. Although similarity-based interference has been well studied in L1 processing, less is known about how it influences L2 processing. We report two studies – an eye-tracking experiment and a comprehension task – investigating interference in the comprehension of relative clauses in L1 and L2 readers. Our results indicated similarity-based interference in the processing of object relative clauses in both L1 and L2 readers, with no significant differences in the size of interference effects between the two groups. These results highlight the importance of considering memory-based factors when examining L2 processing.

Key words eye-tracking, relative clauses, second language processing, similarity-based interference

Orthography does not hinder non-native production learning in children

Katja Immonen, Phonetics and Learning, Age and Bilingualism laboratory (LAB-lab), University of Turku, Turku, Finland

Kimmo U Peltola

Henna Tamminen, University of Turku, Finland

Paavo Alku, Aalto University, Finland

Maija S Peltola, University of Turku, Finland

Abstract Children are known to be fast learners due to their neural plasticity. Learning a non-native language (L2) requires the mastering of new production patterns. In classroom settings, learners are not only exposed to the acoustic input, but also to the unfamiliar grapheme–phoneme correspondences of the L2 orthography. We tested how 9–10-year-old children, with Finnish as a native language (L1), respond to a two-day listen-and-repeat training paradigm, where they simultaneously hear acoustic stimuli and see orthographic cues. In the procedure, non-words containing the L2 vowel /ʉ/ were presented simultaneously with an orthographic cue showing <u>, guiding pronunciation towards the L1 vowel /u/ according to Finnish grapheme–phoneme correspondences. Earlier studies showed that Finnish adults rely on the orthographic cue over the acoustic one, leading them to produce /u/ instead of /ʉ/ when presented with the incongruent L1–L2 grapheme–phoneme correspondence (<u> – L1: /u/, L2: /ʉ/). Also, an earlier result from age-matched children receiving only acoustic input showed relatively fast pronunciation changes towards the target vowel. Our present results indicate clear and fast production learning of the non-native sound, and the misleading orthographic cue did not draw attention away from the target acoustic form. With orthographic cues, the participants learned to produce novel sounds faster than without them.

Key words audio-visual cues, children, orthography, production learning, training

期刊简介

Second Language Researchis aninternational peer-reviewed, quarterly journal, publishing originaltheory-driven research concerned with second (and additional) languageacquisition and second language performance. This includes both experimentalstudies and contributions aimed at exploring conceptual issues. In addition toproviding a forum for investigators in the field of non-native languagelearning, it seeks to promote interdisciplinary research which linksacquisition studies to related non-applied fields such as neurolinguistics,psycholinguistics, theoretical linguistics, bilingualism, and first languagedevelopmental psycholinguistics.

《第二语言研究》是一本国际同行评议的季刊，发表了与第二语言习得和第二语言表现有关的原创理论研究。这包括实验研究和旨在探索概念问题的贡献。除了为非母语学习领域的研究者提供一个论坛外，它还寻求促进跨学科研究，将习得研究与相关的非应用领域联系起来，如神经语言学、心理语言学、理论语言学、双语和第一语言发展心理语言学。

Note that studies of foreign languageteaching and learning are outside the scope of Second Language Research, unlessthey make a substantial contribution to understanding the process and nature ofsecond language acquisition. Types of publications include full-length researcharticles (about 9,000 words), research notes (about 4,000 words), reviewarticles of recent books or timely topics (about 5,000 words), discussion andcommentary (about 5,000 words), invited keynote articles (about 11,000 words)and guest-edited, thematic issues.
请注意，外语教学研究不属于第二语言研究的范畴，除非它们对理解第二语言习得的过程和性质做出了重大贡献。出版物类型包括全文研究文章（约9000字）、研究笔记（约4000字）、近期书籍或及时主题的评论文章（约5000字）、讨论和评论（约5000字）、邀请发表的主题文章（约11000字）和客座编辑的主题问题。

This journal is a member of the Committeeon Publication Ethics (COPE).

本期刊是出版伦理委员会（COPE）的成员。

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