THE MODERN LANGUAGE JOURNAL

Volume 106, Issue 2-4, June 2022

The Modern Language Journal（SSCI一区，2021 IF：7.5）2022年第2-4期共发文34篇，其中研究性论文25篇。研究论文涉及多语学习动机、教学法、二语学习、留学经历、语言教学与研究、语言教师等方面。欢迎转发扩散！（2022年已更完）

往期推荐：

刊讯｜SSCI 期刊《现代语言杂志》2022年第1期

目录

Issue 2

ORIGINAL ARTICLES

■Is English the Culprit? Longitudinal Associations Between Students’ Value Beliefs in English, German, and French in Multilingual Switzerland, by Oana Costache, Eva S. Becker, Thomas Goetz, Pages 313-327.

■Linguistic and Artistic Representations of Trauma: The Contribution of Pedagogies of Discomfort in Language Education, by Melina Porto, Michalinos Zembylas, Pages 328-350.

■Does Mode of Input Affect How Second Language Learners Create Form–Meaning Connections and Pronounce Second Language Words?, by Takumi Uchihara, Stuart Webb, Kazuya Saito, Pavel Trofimovich, Pages 351-370.

■Exploring Boundedness for Concept-Based Instruction of Aspect: Evidence From Learning the Spanish Preterite and Imperfect, by Elizabeth M. Kissling, Tejas Muthusamy, Pages 371-392.

■The Relative Contribution of Language Complexity to Second Language Video Lectures Difficulty Assessment, by Emad A. Alghamdi, Paul Gruba, Eduardo Velloso, Pages 393-410.

■Brief but Mighty? Sustained L2 Learning and Perceived Psychobehavioral Benefits After Short-Term Study Abroad, by Janire Zalbidea, Bernard I. Issa, Mandy Faretta-Stutenberg, Pages 411-428.

■ Second Language Speech Intelligibility Revisited: Differential Roles of Phonological Accuracy, Visual Speech, and Iconic Gesture, by Page Wheeler, Kazuya Saito, Pages 429-448.

■The Efficacy of Incidental Attention to Formulaic and Nonformulaic Forms in Focus on Form, by Leila Gholami, Pages 449-468.

Perspectives

■THE ISSUE: International Teaching Assistants in Higher Education: New Perspectives and Possibilities, by Martha Bigelow, Pages 469-502.

THE POSITION PAPER

■The “Foreign TA Problem” Forty Years On, by Darren K. Lascotte, Pages 470-482.

THE COMMENTARIES

■Reframing “the Foreign TA Problem” as “the American Listener Problem”, by Cynthia Zocca Deroma, Pages 483-486.

■The “Foreign TA Problem” as a Demand for Aesthetic Labor, by Vijay A. Ramkattan, Pages 486-489.

■Fairness, Justice, and the Certification of Teaching Competence for International Teaching Assistants, by Tim Mcnamara, Pages 489-491.

■Beyond Language: Reframing the Foreign Teaching Assistant Instruction Through Materiality Perspective, by Yi-Ju Lai, Pages 491-494.

■Ideology, Policy, and Potentials for Dialogue, by Pstephen Daniel Looney, Pages 494-498.

■International Teaching Assistants Offer More Than Their English Accents: A Response to “The ‘Foreign TA Problem’ Forty Years On”, by Mostafa Papi, Pages 498-502.

What's Coming in Future Issues?

■ Forthcoming in The Modern Language Journal, 106, 3, Page 503

Issue 3

Original Articles

■ May I See Your Credentials, Please? Displays of Pedagogical Expertise by Language Teaching Researchers, by Heath Rose, Jim Mckinley, Pages 528-546.

■Bridging the Researcher–Practitioner Divide Through Community-Engaged Action Research: A Collaborative Autoethnographic Exploration, by Peter I. De Costa, Kasun Gajasinghe, Laxmi Prasad Ojha, Amr Rabie–Ahmed, Pages 547-563.

■Bridging the Gap Between Researchers and Teachers: A Curricular Perspective, by Ronald P. Leow, Anne Thinglum, Rina Tseng, Pages 564-582.

■Teacher Beliefs About Second Language Research and Researchers: Different Roles at Research-Oriented Universities, by Lieselotte Sippel, Masatoshi Sato, Pages 583-598.

■Nurturing Teachers’ Research Mindset in an Inquiry-Based Language Teacher Education Course, by Mai Xuan Nhai Chi Nguyen, Phung Dao, Noriko Iwashita, Pages 599-616.

■Researcher-Supported Professional Learning and Development for Instructors in Adult L2 Programs: Factors Leading to Ongoing Communities of Practice, by Marilyn L. Abbott, Kent K. Lee, Pages 617-634.

■In it Together: Teachers, Researchers, and Classroom SLA, by Nina Spada, Patsy M. Lightbown, Pages 635-650.

Issue 4

Original Articles

■“I Preferred to Take Another ActivityFrom the Textbook”: An Activity–Theoretical Study of Learningto Design Language Teaching Materials, by Luis Carabantes, Amos Paran, Pages 659-674.

■Comprehensible to Whom? Examining Rater, Speaker, and Interlocutor Perspectives on Comprehensibility in an Interactive Context, by Charlie L. Nagle, Pavel Profimovich, Mary Grantham O’Brien, Sara Kennedy, Pages 675-693.

■How Output Outweighs Input and Interlocutors Matter for Study-Abroad SLA: Computational Social NetworkAnalysis of Learner Interactions, by Michał B. Paradowski, Agnieszka Cierpich-Kozieł, Chih-Chun Chen, Jeremi K. Ochab, Pages 694-725.

■Crossing the River by Feeling theStones: Understanding andIntegrating Social Justice in Chinese Language Class, by Kaishan Kong, Pages 726-743.

■Channeling Voices to Improve L2English Intelligibility, by Darren K. Lascotte, Elaine Tarone, Pages 744-763.

■The Hare and the Tortoise: The Raceon the Course of L2 Learning, by Sayuri Hayakawa, James Bartolotti, Viorica Marian, Pages 514–540.

■Quantifying Native Speakerism in Second Language (L2) Writing: A Study of Student Evaluations of Teaching, by Yasser Teimouri, Farhad Tabandeh, Somayeh Tahmouresi, Pages 764-783.

■By the Old Gods and the New: The Effect of the Congruence and Incongruence of Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety and Enjoyment on Self-Perceived Proficiency, by Elouise Botes, Jean-Marc Dewaele, Samuel Greiff, Pages 784-797.

■Measuring Writing Development and Proficiency Gains Using Indices ofLexical and Syntactic Complexity: Evidence From Longitudinal RussianLearner Corpus Data, by Olesya Kisselev, Rossina Soyan, Dmitrii Pastushenkov, Jason Merrill, Pages 798-817.

■ What Does Explicit Knowledge Look Like? An Analysis of Information Structure in Rule Formation by L2 Learners and Its Relationship With Guided Inductive Learning, by Paul A. Malovrh, James F. Lee, Pages 818-836.

■ Intentional and Incidental Vocabulary Learning: The Role of Historical Linguistics in the Second Language Classroom, by James M. Stratton, Pages 837-857.

摘要

Is English the Culprit? Longitudinal Associations Between Students’ Value Beliefs in English, German, and French in Multilingual Switzerland

Oana Costache, University of Zurich, Institute of Education, Kantonsschulstrasse 3, Switzerland E-mail: oana.costache@uzh.ch

Eva S. Becker, University of Zurich, Institute of Education, Kantonsschulstrasse 3, Switzerland E-mail: eva.becker@ife.uzh.ch

Thomas Goetz, University of Vienna, Department of Developmental and Educational Psychology, Faculty of Psychology,Universitaetsstrasse 7 (NIG) 1010 Vienna, Austria E-mail: thomas.goetz@univie.ac.at

Abstract Motivational interactions during multiple language learning have been largely neglected in language motivation research. To fill this gap, we investigate longitudinal relations between Swiss German students’ value beliefs in English, French, and German in upper secondary schools and whether there are differences in motivational development between multilingual and monolingual students. Multivariate latent growth modeling was used to analyze data from 850 students (Mage = 15.61 years, SD = .62; 54% female) gathered yearly from Grades 9 to 11. Results suggest an interference between students’ value beliefs in English and the other 2 languages. Students who reported higher value beliefs in English in Grade 9 showed steeper decreases in their value beliefs for French and German from Grades 9 to 11. However, stronger increases in English value beliefs over time were associated with stronger increases in French and German value beliefs. Moreover, while multilingual students reported higher initial value beliefs in French and English, they also showed steeper decreases in French and English value beliefs over time compared to their monolingual peers. Findings are discussed in relation to their implications for teaching practice and future research directions.

Keywords:  motivation; foreign language teaching; multilingualism; longitudinal; latent growth modeling

Linguistic and Artistic Representations of Trauma: The Contribution of Pedagogies of Discomfort in Language Education

Melina Porto, Universidad Nacional de La Plata and CONICET (National Research Council), Instituto de Investigaciones enHumanidades y Ciencias Sociales, Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación, Calle 51 e/124 y 125,Ensenada, B1925, Argentina E-mail: melinaporto@conicet.gov.ar

Michalinos Zembylas, Open University of Cyprus, Programme of Educational Studies, Giannou Kranidioti 33, Latsia, 2220, CyprusE-mail: m.zembylas@ouc.ac.cy

Abstract This article aims to contribute to recent discussions on pedagogy of pain in world language education. Drawing on the limitations of language to represent and express trauma and pain, we foreground the value of pedagogies at the intersection of language, art, and trauma. It is our contention that a linguistic perspective in and of itself is insufficient and needs to be supported by artistic and multimodal forms of expression as those reinforced by the arts. We describe a study that addressed trauma in a language education context and show how linguistic and nonlinguistic representations of trauma and pain can be productively engaged in formal educational settings using the notion of pedagogy of discomfort. We conclude by highlighting that engaging with the limits of the (un)sayable linked to traumatic and painful events and experiences complementing linguistic with nonlinguistic means can benefit applied linguistics and world language education by bringing attention to the embodied and affective complexities emerging from engagement with trauma.

Keywords: pedagogy of pain; trauma; representations of trauma; pedagogy of discomfort

Does Mode of Input Affect How Second Language Learners Create Form–Meaning Connections and Pronounce Second Language Words?

Takumi Uchihara, Waseda University, Faculty of Science and Engineering, 3-4-1, Okubo, Shinjuku, Tokyo, 169–8555, JapanE-mail: tuchihar@aoni.waseda.jp

Stuart Webb, University of Western Ontario, Faculty of Education, 1137 Western Road, London, ON, N6G 1G7, CanadaE-mail: swebb27@uwo.ca

Kazuya Saito, University College London, Institute of Education, 20 Bedford Way, London, WC1 0AL, United KingdomE-mail: k.saito@ucl.ac.uk

Pavel Trofimovich, Concordia University, Department of Education, 1455 de Maisonneuve Blvd W, Montreal, QC, H3G 1M8,Canada E-mail: Pavel.Trofimovich@concordia.ca

Abstract This study examined how mode of input affects the learning of pronunciation and form–meaning connection of second language (L2) words. Seventy-five Japanese learners of English were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 conditions (reading while listening, reading only, listening only), studied 40 low-frequency words while viewing their corresponding pictures, and completed a picture-naming test 3 times (before, immediately, and about 6 days after treatment). The elicited speech samples were assessed for form–meaning connection (spoken form recall) and pronunciation accuracy (accentedness, comprehensibility). Results showed that the reading-while-listening group recalled a significantly greater number of spoken word forms than did the listening-only group. Learners in the reading-while-listening and listening-only modes were judged to be less accented and more comprehensible compared to learners in the reading-only mode. However, only learners receiving spoken input without orthographic support retained more target-like (less accented) pronunciation compared to learners receiving only written input. Furthermore, sound–spelling consistency of words significantly moderated the degree to which different learning modes impacted pronunciation learning. Taken together, the findings suggest that simultaneous presentation of written and spoken forms is optimal for the development of form–meaning connection and comprehensibility of novel words but that provision of only spoken input may be beneficial for the attainment of target-like accent.

Keywords: mode of input; vocabulary learning; pronunciation learning; orthographic influence; accent-edness; comprehensibility

Exploring Boundedness for Concept-Based Instruction of Aspect: Evidence From Learning the Spanish Preterite and Imperfect

Elizabeth M. Kissling, University of Richmond, Department of Latin American and Iberian Studies, MSC 1802, Richmond, VA, 23173E-mail: ekisslin@richmond.edu

Tejas Muthusamy, Yale University, 200 Elm Street, New Haven, CT, 06511  E-mail: Muthusamy.tejas@gmail.com

Abstract This study investigated to what extent and how novice second-language (L2) Spanish learners use the cognitive linguistics-informed concept of boundedness to support their development of aspect—namely, the Spanish preterite and imperfect. The concept was presented within the framework of concept-based instruction (CBI) as part of a regular, semester-long U.S. college Spanish course for true beginners (N = 16). The sociocultural approach of CBI has been found to be effective for other complex L2 phenomena with more advanced learners, but the usefulness of the concept of boundedness for novice learners was untested. Definition, comprehension, verbalization, and performance data were triangulated to measure instructional effectiveness. Results suggest that the concept-based instructional approach using the concept of boundedness supported students’ understanding of aspect, evidenced by multiple measures of conceptual development, as well as their accuracy in using aspect to create personal narratives.

Keywords: aspect; boundedness; cognitive linguistics; concept-based instruction; preterite and imperfect

The Relative Contribution of Language Complexity to Second Language Video Lectures Difficulty Assessment

Emad A. Alghamdi, King Abdulaziz University, English Language Institute, Jeddah, 21589, Saudi Arabia E-mail:eaalghamdi@kau.edu.sa

Paul Gruba, The University of Melbourne, Department of Linguistics and Applied Linguistics, Grattan Street, Parkville,Melbourne, Victoria, 3010, Australia E-mail: p.gruba@unimelb.edu.au

Eduardo Velloso, The University of Melbourne, School of Computing and Information Systems, Grattan Street, Parkville,Melbourne, Victoria, 3010, Australia E-mail: Eduardo.velloso@unimelb.edu.au

Abstract Although core in the teaching of academic language skills, little research to date has investigated what makes video-recorded lectures difficult for language learners. As part of a larger program to develop automated videotext complexity measures, this study reports on selected dimensions of linguistic complexity to understand how they contribute to overall videotext difficulty. Based on the ratings of English language learners of 320 video lectures, we built regression models to predict subjective estimates of video lecture difficulty. The results of our analysis demonstrate that a 4-component partial least square regression model explains 52% of the variance in video difficulty and significantly outperformed a baseline model in predicting the difficulty of videos in an out-of-sample testing set. The results of our study point to the use of linguistic complexity features for predicting overall videotext difficulty and raise the possibility of developing automated systems for measuring video difficulty, akin to those already available for estimating the readability of written materials.

Keywords: language learning; linguistic complexity; readability; video difficulty

Brief but Mighty? Sustained L2 Learning and Perceived Psychobehavioral Benefits After Short-Term Study Abroad

Janire Zalbidea, Temple University, Department of Spanish and Portuguese, 1114 W. Polett Walk, Philadelphia, PA 19122-6008E-mail: janire.zalbidea@temple.edu

Bernaro I. Issa, University of Tennessee, Department of Modern Foreign Languages and Literatures, Knoxville, 701 McClungTower, Knoxville, TN 37996-4519 E-mail: bissa@utk.edu

Mandy Faretta-Stutenberg, Northern Illinois University, Department of World Languages and Cultures, Watson Hall 111, DeKalb, IL 60115E-mail: mfs@niu.edu

Abstract Evidence suggests that short-term study abroad experiences can help advance various dimensions of second language (L2) learners’ linguistic competence. However, the extent to which gains following a brief sojourn are durable and maintained after immersion remains an open question. The present study examined both the immediate and sustained learning outcomes following a short-term study abroad program by considering L2 Spanish learners’ (a) linguistic gains in global proficiency, oral production, and L2 knowledge, and (b) nonlinguistic gains in perceived psychobehavioral flexibility, a trait that remains underresearched despite its broad relevance to study abroad contexts. Data were collected at the onset and end of a summer study abroad program in Spain, as well as 5 weeks post-sojourn, after students’ reimmersion in the first language environment. Mixed-effects models revealed that gains in global proficiency and some aspects of oral production and L2 knowledge, as well as increases in perceived psychobehavioral flexibility, were noticeable at the end of the program and were maintained for several weeks post-sojourn in the absence of further L2 instruction. Findings provide a first look into the potential of short-term study abroad for promoting durable developmental changes across linguistic and nonlinguistic domains.

Keywords: study abroad; short term; L2 development; flexibility; Spanish

Second Language Speech Intelligibility Revisited: Differential Roles of Phonological Accuracy, Visual Speech, and Iconic Gesture

Page Wheeler, University College London, Institute of Education, 20 Bedford Way, United Kingdom, WC1H 0ALE-mail: page.wheeler.18@ucl.ac.uk

Kazuya Saito, University College London, Institute of Education, 20 Bedford Way, United Kingdom, WC1H 0ALE-mail: k.saito@ucl.ac.uk

Abstract Although intelligibility is a core concept in second language (L2) speech assessment and teaching research, the vast majority of previous work relies on audio-only stimuli. The current study set out to examine how linguistic and visual information jointly interact to determine the degree of speech intelligibility. Both first language (L1) and L2 English listeners were presented with stimuli that varied along 3 factors (vowel error, visual speech, and iconic gesture) and completed an orthographic transcription task. Results revealed that iconic gesture significantly increased all the listeners’ intelligibility scores when speech contained vowel errors. When speech did not contain errors, gesture increased intelligibility for L2 listeners but not L1 listeners. Visual speech had no significant effect on intelligibility in either listener group. Vowel error reduced intelligibility by approximately 20–30% for both L1 and L2 listeners. Findings suggest that visual modalities, especially gestures, have the potential to significantly affect the intelligibility of speech containing phonological errors.

Keywords: intelligibility; pronunciation; visual speech; gesture

The Efficacy of Incidental Attention to Formulaic and Nonformulaic Forms in Focus on Form

Leila Gholami, Arizona State University, Department of English, 1102 S. McAllister Avenue, Tempe, AZ, 85281E-mail: lgholami@asu.edu

Abstract Focus on form (FonF) studies have predominantly addressed its effectiveness in improving learners’ syntactic, lexical, orthographic, and phonological knowledge. Extending the scope of this line of research to formulaic FonF practices, this study investigates the relative effectiveness of incidental FonF targeting formulaic versus nonformulaic forms through (successful) uptake rate and individualized posttests. Formulaic forms refer to collocation, idiom, lexical bundle, and compound, whereas nonformulaic forms refer to grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and spelling. A total of 551 focus-on-form episodes (FFEs) with formulaic foci, and 874 instances of FFEs with nonformulaic foci were identified in 30 hours of teacher–learner interactions in English-as-a-foreign-language classes. FFEs with formulaic and nonformulaic foci (n = 446) were used as the basis for developing individualized test items. This study found that learners produced (successful) uptake more often following FFEs with formulaic foci than nonformulaic ones, while they performed less successfully on the individualized immediate and delayed posttests in the case of formulaic-oriented FFEs. Based on the regression analyses, the occurrence of successful uptake following FFEs with formulaic foci was not found to be a significant predictor of learners’ retention of target forms on the individualized posttests.

Keywords: formulaic language; formulaic sequences; incidental focus on form; second language learning;successful uptake

May I See Your Credentials, Please? Displays of Pedagogical Expertise by Language Teaching Researchers

Heath Rose, University of Oxford, Department of Education, 15 Norham Gardens, Oxford, OX2 6PY, United KingdomE-mail: heath.rose@education.ox.ac.uk

Jim Mckinley, University College London, Institute of Education, 20 Bedford Way, Bloomsbury, London, WC1H 0AL, UnitedKingdom E-mail: j.mckinley@ucl.ac.uk

Abstract There is a growing popular discourse that the intellectualization of the field of language teaching has resulted in a growing divide between language teaching researchers and professionals. Some scholars have called for more holistic professionals, that is, people who embody the identities of both researcher and practitioner. To explore such positioning, this study analyzed author biographies (bios; N = 400) of research articles in leading language teaching journals that self-identified as major avenues to communicate research to language teaching practitioners. Questionnaires were then sent to authors to probe further into their professional positionality and their perspectives on the importance of teaching experience for researchers. Results of the biographical text analysis showed that authors primarily positioned themselves as researchers through their research interests, academic qualifications, and publication achievements. The questionnaire (N = 233) revealed that authors had a wealth of language teaching experience and qualifications and viewed the relationship between research and teaching as important. Comparing survey data to biographical data revealed that a majority of researchers clearly underreported teaching credentials in their author bios. We conclude that researchers with relevant teacher identities to draw upon should foreground their professional expertise in their published work, especially in journal outlets that claim to operate within a teaching–research nexus.

Keywords: teaching; research; researcher identity; teacher educator identity

Bridging the Researcher–Practitioner Divide Through Community-Engaged Action Research: A Collaborative Autoethnographic Exploration

Peter I. De Costa, Michigan State University, Department of Linguistics, Languages, and Cultures, 619 Red Cedar Road, B257Wells Hall, East Lansing, MI, 48824 E-mail: pdecosta@msu.edu

Kasun Gajasinghe, Michigan State University, Department of Teacher Education, 620 Farm Lane, Room 313 Erickson Hall, EastLansing, MI, 48824 E-mail: gajasing@msu.edu

Laxmi Prasad Ojha, Michigan State University, Department of Teacher Education, 620 Farm Lane, Room 313 Erickson Hall, EastLansing, MI, 48824 E-mail: ojhalaxm@msu.edu

Amr Rabie–Ahmed，Michigan State University, Department of Linguistics, Languages, and Cultures, B255 Wells Hall, 619 RedCedar Road, East Lansing, MI, 48824 E-mail: rabieamr@msu.edu

Abstract As multilingual language teachers ourselves, we believe that this book brings an end to the ongoing debate regarding native speakers versus non-native speakers in language teaching research with a single, well-aimed blow. Nevertheless, situated in a complex, ecological context, the idea of being multilingual instructors as recommended by Kramsch and Zhang remains a highly challenging goal for many language teachers to pursue. We start this review by outlining what the book achieves, before we comment on some outstanding issues that still deserve more attention.

Keywords: teacher–research collaboration; research–practice gap; collaborative autoethnography

Bridging the Gap Between Researchers and Teachers: A Curricular Perspective

Ronald P. Leow, Georgetown University, Department of Spanish and Portuguese, 37th and O St. NW, Washington, DC, 20057E-mail: leowr@georgetown.edu

Anne Thinglum, Georgetown University, Department of Spanish and Portuguese, 37th and O St. NW, Washington, DC, 20057E-mail: amc254@georgetown.edu

Maude Havenne, Georgetown University, Department of Spanish and Portuguese, 37th and O St. NW, Washington, DC, 20057E-mail: mh1862@georgetown.edu

Rina Tseng, Georgetown University, Department of Spanish and Portuguese, 37th and O St. NW, Washington, DC, 20057E-mail: ryt5@georgetown.edu

Abstract This study investigated the researcher–teacher interface issue by exploring second language (L2) teachers’ experiences of being involved in a large instructed second language acquisition empirical study aimed at curricular changes. The study addressed two goals. First, by involving the entire teaching staff at all levels of the multisection language teaching program in the administration of the empirical study, it examined the interface at the individual and the professional level. Second, by involving the teachers in every aspect of the study, it investigated the interface at the curricular level. Participants were 27 L2 teachers of Spanish at a private research university in the United States comprising graduate students of all disciplines and full-time and adjunct faculty. The interface data were obtained via a survey with questions related to teachers’ academic backgrounds, pedagogical beliefs, experiences with academic journals, beliefs regarding the present study, overall experience, and their involvement in the research project. Two teachers also participated in in-depth personal reflections. The results showed that the active participation by the teachers raised their level of awareness of the researcher–teacher and research–curriculum interfaces and also increased their overall personal and professional development as informed teachers who employ theoretically driven and empirically supported activities in their lesson plans.

Keywords: researcher–teacher interface; research–curriculum interface; personal and professionaldevelopment

Teacher Beliefs About Second Language Research and Researchers: Different Roles at Research-Oriented Universities

Lieselotte Sippel, Yale University, Department of Germanic Languages and Literatures, 320 York Street, New Haven, CT, 06511E-mail: lieselotte.sippel@yale.edu

Masatoshi Sato, Universidad Andres Bello, Department of English, Fernández Concha 700, Las Condes, Santiago, 7550000, ChileE-mail: masatoshi.sato@unab.cl

Abstract This study investigated foreign language teachers’ beliefs about the research–pedagogy link by focusing on research-oriented universities. Participants (N = 107) held different roles at their universities: graduate students (n = 17), full-time second language (L2) instructors (n = 69), and language program directors (n = 21). Data were collected via a survey that asked about participants’ understanding and use of L2 research. Interview data were used to triangulate the survey results. The survey data were first subjected to exploratory factor analyses. ANOVAs were conducted for each extracted factor to compare the 3 roles. Multiple regression models were tested to identify predictors of participants’ beliefs. The factor analysis resulted in a 5-factor solution: (a) usefulness of research, (b) researchers’ engagement with teaching, (c) perceived institutional expectations, (d) engagement with research, and (e) trust in research and researchers. Instructors held different beliefs depending on their roles. Overall, program directors held more positive beliefs about L2 research than full-time L2 instructors, and full-time L2 instructors held more positive beliefs than graduate students. Regression models showed that L2 teaching qualification and L2 teacher training experience positively predicted participants’ engagement with research. Suggestions for improving the research–pedagogy relationship are discussed.

Keywords: teacher beliefs; research–pedagogy link; knowledge mobilization; evidence-based practice

Nurturing Teachers’ Research Mindset in an Inquiry-Based Language Teacher Education Course

Mai Xuan Nhat Chi Nguyen, Manchester Metropolitan University, Department of Languages, Information and Communications, Cavendish St,Manchester, M15 6BG, United Kingdom E-mail: m.nguyen@mmu.ac.uk

Phung Dao, Manchester Metropolitan University, Department of Languages, Information and Communications, Cavendish St,Manchester, M15 6BG, United Kingdom E-mail: p.dao@mmu.ac.uk

Noriko Iwashita, University of Queensland, School of Languages and Cultures, St Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland, 4072, AustraliaE-mail: n.iwashita@uq.edu.au

Abstract This study investigates the impact of an inquiry-based teacher education course in nurturing second language (L2) teachers’ research mindset, defined herein as their cognition and action toward research. One hundred and thirty pre- and in-service L2 teachers of various nationalities participated in a teacher education course on instructed second language acquisition (ISLA) at an Australian university. The course was designed following an inquiry-based approach, with course activities focused on promoting teacher learners’ curiosity about ISLA issues and their engagement both with and in research. Data were collected before, during, and after course participation, using a precourse survey, written reflections, and focus group interviews. Findings revealed that the inquiry-based course activities enabled the teacher learners to adopt a stronger research mindset. They were able to articulate the importance of research for teaching practice and gained firsthand experience as well as increased confidence in conducting research. They also showed inclination toward research-informed teaching and were keen to maintain their newly established favorable relationship with research, despite acknowledging concerns about their future actual research engagement, mostly due to time constraint and lack of institutional support. These findings suggest implications for nurturing language teachers’ research mindset within L2 teacher education courses.

Keywords: research mindset; research engagement; second language teacher education; inquiry-based teaching

Researcher-Supported Professional Learning and Development for Instructors in Adult L2 Programs: Factors Leading to Ongoing Communities of Practice

Marilyn L. Abbott, University of Alberta, Department of Educational Psychology, 6–102 Education North, Edmonton, Alberta,Canada T6G 2G5 E-mail: marilyn.abbott@ualberta.ca

Kent K. Lee, University of Alberta, Department of Educational Psychology, 6–102 Education North, Edmonton, Alberta,Canada T6G 2G5 E-mail: kent.lee@ualberta.ca

Abstract We describe a longitudinal (5-year) researcher-supported initiative designed to strengthen the research–practice link (RPL) and serve as an effective form of situated professional learning and development (PLD) in adult second language programs. We facilitated the formation of and supported 9 professional reading groups of 6–12 instructors (N = 76). The groups met monthly to discuss peer-reviewed journal articles to address shared PLD needs. Using retrodictive qualitative modeling, we traced the underlying factors in our RPL initiative that contributed to the rise of ongoing autonomous communities of practice in which instructors continued to engage in monthly cycles of implementing and adapting research knowledge and co-constructed knowledge and practices gleaned from their reading and group discussions of peer-reviewed articles. Data included participants’ responses to questionnaires, audio recordings of focus group interviews and reading group discussions, and researchers’ field notes. The results indicated that different types of communities of practice emerged over time through complex dynamic interactions between multiple factors in the RPL initiative (e.g., researchers, practitioners, and institutional and environmental forces). We discuss how researchers can strengthen the RPL by fostering the development of communities of practice that combine both research and practical knowledge to improve and create new educational practices.

Keywords: teaching English to speakers of other languages; professional learning and development;teacher reading groups; research–practice link

In it Together: Teachers, Researchers, and Classroom SLA

Nina Spada, University of Toronto, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, 252 Bloor Street West, Toronto, ON M5S1V6,Canada E-mail: nina.spada@utoronto.ca

Patsy M. Lightbown, Concordia University, Department of Education, 1610 Saint-Catherine St W, Montreal, QC H3H2S2, CanadaE-mail: patsy.lightbown@verizon.net

Abstract In discussions about relationships between research and pedagogy, teachers and researchers are often characterized as facing each other across a “gap” that separates them. Teachers are described as having practical concerns about their own classrooms and little patience for “theoretical” issues. Researchers are described as removed from day-to-day classroom concerns and oriented to more abstract factors that, if not “universal,” are at least “generalizable.” In reality, many researchers share with teachers the goal of making teaching and learning as successful as possible. What they learn from each other can help them reach that goal. In this article, we discuss 3 guiding principles that help to create the conditions for productive collaboration: (a) build trust and long-term relationships, (b) build and share knowledge, and (c) follow up and provide feedback. We describe how the cycle of observation, correlation, and experimentation influenced our research and created opportunities to investigate questions that were of interest to us as researchers and relevant to teachers’ goals. We use examples of our own studies and those of other researchers who have engaged in long-term teacher–researcher collaborations, illustrating how the research–pedagogy link can be strengthened.

Keywords: classroom-based research; teacher–researcher gap; process–product research

“I Preferred to Take Another Activity From the Textbook”: AnActivity–Theoretical Study of Learningto Design Language Teaching Materials

Luis Carabantes, Queen Mary, University of London, School of Languages, Linguistics and Film, 327 Mile End Road, London, E14NS, United Kingdom  E-mail: l.carabantes@qmul.ac.uk

Amos Paran, University College London, Institute of Education, 20 Bedford Way, London, WC1H 0AL, United KingdomE-mail: a.paran@ucl.ac.uk

Abstract Using activity theory, an offshoot of sociocultural theory, we examined how a group of preservice teachers (PSTs) of English in Chile learnt to design language teaching materials. Data from PSTs, teachereducators, and mentoring teachers shows how the conceptual tool of “teaching English as teaching the textbook” is appropriated by a group of PSTs and how their development of teacher agency is un-dermined by textbooks during their practicum—as well as showing the influential role of mentoringteachers and teacher educators in the appropriation of this conceptual tool. The study discusses theimplications of how textbooks are used for English-as-a-foreign-language teacher education.

Keywords: language teaching materials; language teacher education; activity theory; sociocultural theory; English as a Foreign Language textbooks

Comprehensible to Whom? Examining Rater, Speaker, and Interlocutor Perspectives on Comprehensibility in an Interactive Context

Charlie L. Nagle, The University of Texas at Austin, Department of Spanish and Portuguese, Benedict Hall, 150 W 21st St.,Austin, TX 78712 E-mail: cnagle@austin.utexas.edu

Pavel Profimovich, Concordia University, Department of Education, S-FG 5145 Faubourg Ste-Catherine Building, 1610 St. CatherineW., Montreal, QC H3H 1L9, Canada E-mail: pavel.trofimovich@concordia.ca

Mary Grantham O’Brien, University of Calgary, School of Languages, Linguistics, Literatures and Cultures, Craigie Hall Block C 216,2940, University Way NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4H5, Canada E-mail: mgobrien@ucalgary.ca

Sara Kennedy, Concordia University, Department of Education, 1455 de Maisonneuve St. W., Montreal, QC H3G 1M8, Canada E-mail: sara.kennedy@concordia.ca

Abstract Comprehensibility has emerged as a useful and intuitive means of globally evaluating second language (L2) speakers in many research and instructional contexts. In most cases, L2 speakers’ comprehensibility is assessed by external listeners who do not engage in extensive communication with the speakers, even though the degree to which a speaker is comprehensible is presumably of greatest concern to their interlocutor. If comprehensibility is defined as the ease with which speakers come to understand one another, then interaction-based assessments, which would include self and peer ratings, might provide different insight into interactive comprehensibility compared to assessments by external listeners. To examine this issue, in this study, 20 pairs of L2 English interactants rated themselves and their partner on 7 occasions distributed throughout a 17-minute interaction encompassing 3 communicative tasks, and recordings of the interaction were subsequently presented to external raters for evaluation. Mixed-effects models were used to compare the shape of the comprehensibility curves over time and the self, partner, and rater scores at each rating episode. Results demonstrated that self and partner assessments were always aligned, but raters consistently assigned significantly lower comprehensibility scores to the interactants. These findings have implications for how comprehensibility, and indeed other listener-based constructs, are assessed.

Keywords: interaction; comprehensibility; pronunciation; self-assessment; listener-based ratings

How Output Outweighs Input and Interlocutors Matter for Study-Abroad SLA: Computational Social Network Analysis of Learner Interactions

Michał B. Paradowski, University of Warsaw, Institute of Applied Linguistics, ul. Dobra 55, Warsaw, PL-00-312, PolandE-mail: m.b.paradowski@uw.edu.pl 

Agnieszka Cierpich-Kozieł, Jesuit University Ignatianum in Kraków, Institute of Modern Languages, ul. Kopernika 26, Kraków, PL-31-501,Poland E-mail: agnieszka.cierpich@ignatianum.edu.pl

Chih-Chun Chen, University of Cambridge, Engineering Department, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, CB2 1PZ, UnitedKingdom E-mail: c3@c3d3.info

Jeremi K. Ochab, Jagiellonian University, Institute of Theoretical Physics and Mark Kac Complex Systems Center, ul. prof.Stanisława Łojasiewicza 11, Kraków, PL-30-348, Poland E-mail: jeremi.ochab@uj.edu.pl

Abstract This data-driven study framed in the interactionist approach investigates the influence of social graphtopology and peer interaction dynamics among foreign exchange students enrolled in an intensive Ger-man language course on second language acquisition (SLA) outcomes. Applying the algorithms andmetrics of computational social network analysis (SNA), we find that (a) the best predictor of target lan-guage (TL) performance is reciprocal interactions in the language being acquired, (b) the proportionof output in the TL is a stronger predictor than input (Principle of Proportional Output), (c) there isa negative relationship between performance and interactions with same-first-language speakers, (d) asignificantly underperforming English native-speaker dominated cluster is present, and (e) there aremore intense interactions taking place between students of different proficiency levels. Unlike previousstudy abroad social network research concentrating on the microlevel of individual learners’ egocentricnetworks and presenting an emic view only, this study constitutes the first application of computationalSNA to a complete learner network (sociogram). It provides new insights into the link between socialrelations and SLA with an etic perspective, showing how social network configuration and peer learnerinteraction are stronger predictors of TL performance than individual factors such as attitude or moti-vation, and offering a rigorous methodology for investigating the phenomenon.

Keywords: study abroad; computational social network analysis; social graph; peer learner network; inter-actionist approach; community/cluste detection

Crossing the River by Feeling the Stones: Understanding and Integrating Social Justice in Chinese Language Class

Kaishan Kong, University of Wisconsin–Eau Claire, Department of Languages, 105 Garfield Avenue, Eau Claire, WI54702-4004 E-mail: kongk@uwec.edu

Keywords: Chinese; community; culture; curriculum; social justice; teacher agency

Channeling Voices to Improve L2 English Intelligibility

Darren K. Lascotte, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities, Minnesota English Language Program, 20 Nicholson Hall, 216 Pillsbury Dr SE, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, United States E-mail: lascotte@umn.edu

Elaine Tarone, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities, Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition, 2163 CarterAvenue, Saint Paul, MN, 55108, United States E-mail: etarone@umn.edu

Abstract In commercial materials for the teaching of second language (L2) pronunciation, common bottom-upapproaches segment phonology into a series of discrete and decontextualized linguistic componentswith rules that students are encouraged to internalize. Such approaches seem out of step with recentsecond language acquisition (SLA) theory and research that emphasize the central influence of socialcontext, interlocutor, empathy, and nonverbal elements on the meaningful use of L2 forms. Research showing that these factors profoundly influence the pronunciation of an L2 in social discourse suggestsa more top-down, holistic pedagogy to better harness the agentive energy of motivated and goal-oriented L2 learners. Drawing on findings in interlanguage phonology and Bakhtinian sociocultural theory, thisarticle documents ways that 7 adult L2 learners in an intensive English program improved their English intelligibility, while some of them also improved their delivery, as they all mirrored and subsequentlychanneled the voices of model speakers in rehearsed oral presentations over the course of a short 7-week pedagogical treatment. The findings of this study support the view that the construct of voice and theinfluence of social contextual factors in SLA are critical in shaping interlanguage phonology and raise anumber of important pedagogical implications for addressing learning outcomes in L2 pronunciation.

Keywords: intelligibility; intonation; Mirroring Project; interlanguage phonology

The Hare and the Tortoise: The Raceon the Course of L2 Learning

Sayuri Hayakawa, Bogaziçi University, Department of Foreign Language Education, Faculty of Education, Bebek, Istanbul, 34342,Turkey E-mail: yt329@georgetown.edu

James Bartolotti, Sharif University of Technology, Languages and Linguistics Center, Azadi Blvd., Tehran, 11365-11155,Iran E-mail: f.tabandeh@sharif.edu

Viorica Marian, Bogaziçi University, School of Foreign Languages, Bebek, Istanbul, 34342, Turkey E-mail: stahmouresi@fsu.edu

Abstract Defined as a combination of perseverance and passion for long-term goals, grit has been hypothesizedto be as important as talent in determining the success of students, adding incremental predictive validity for achievement criteria above and beyond natural or inherent ability. In this study, we tested this hypothesis by comparing the effects of second language (L2) aptitude and L2 grit on L2 achievement.We also explored how age, L2 learning experience, and gender of the students influenced their L2 apti-tude and L2 grit levels. The findings showed that L2 aptitude and L2 grit had similar, positive effects inpredicting language achievement measures. Moreover, some aspects of the students’ language aptitude and L2 grit were susceptible to change as they aged and gained more L2 learning experiences, but theirgender played no reliable part in this regard.

Keywords: grit; L2 grit; L2 aptitude; language achievement

By the Old Gods and the New: TheEffect of the Congruence andIncongruence of Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety and Enjoyment on Self-Perceived Proficiency

Elouise Botes, University of Vienna, Department of Developmental and Educational Psychology, University Street 7 1010,Vienna, Austria E-mail: elouise.botes@univie.ac.at

Jean-Marc Dewaele, Birkbeck, University of London, Department of Languages,Cultures, and Applied Linguistics, 43 Gordon Square,London, United Kingdom, WC1H 0PD E-mail: j.dewaele@bbk.ac.uk

Samuel Greiff, University of Luxembourg, Department of Behavioural and Cognitive Sciences, 11, Porte des Sciences L-4366,Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg E-mail: Samuel.greiff@uni.lu

Abstract Emotions in foreign language (FL) learning have become an increasingly popular research avenue inapplied linguistics. Such research is often carried out using linear correlational or regression methods,which are limited in the extent to which they can depict interrelations. In this study, we aimed to reexamine the relationships between the emotion variables of foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA) and foreign language enjoyment (FLE) and the outcome variable of self-perceived proficiency (SPP) throughnonlinear methods. Specifically, we examined how different levels of FLCA and FLE influenced SPP inconcert in a sample of N=1,039 FL learners by utilizing polynomial regression with response surfaceanalysis. The nonlinear method generated a response model that visually depicted a complex SPP pat-tern as a result of differing levels of FLCA and FLE. This three-dimensional model provides considerable insight into the interaction of positive and negative emotions above and beyond what could be derived from “classical” methods of correlation and linear regression.

Keywords: foreign language classroom anxiety; foreign language enjoyment; self-perceived proficiency;polynomial regression; response surface analysis

Measuring Writing Development andProficiency Gains Using Indices of Lexical and Syntactic Complexity: Evidence From Longitudinal RussianLearner Corpus Data

Olesya Kisselev, University of Texas San Antonio, Department of Bilingual and Bicultural Studies, 3.302D Main Building, OneUTSA Circle, San Antonio, TX 78249, United States E-mail: olesya.kisselev@utsa.edu

Rossina Soyan, Carnegie Mellon University, Department of Modern Language, 5000 Forbes Ave, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, UnitedStates E-mail: rsoyan@andrew.cmu.edu

Dmitrii Pastushenkov, Harvard University, Department of Slavic Languages and Literatures, Barker Ctr, 12 Quincy St, Cambridge, MA,02138, United States E-mail: pastushe@msu.edu

Jason Merrill, Michigan State University, Department of Linguistics, Languages, and Cultures, 619 Red Cedar Rd, EastLansing, MI 48824, United States E-mail: merril25@msu.edu

Abstract Linguistic complexity serves as an important measure of second language (L2) writing development.Complexity indices, however, rarely feature in the studies of learner languages other than English. Ad-ditionally, L2 writing studies have been criticized for the lack of consistency in defining proficiency. Thecurrent study addresses these gaps by exploring writing development in a less commonly studied lan-guage (i.e., Russian) while paying attention to the operationalization of proficiency. We analyzed lexicaland syntactic complexity indices in a corpus of essays written by learners at different levels at the begin-ning and the end of an instructional program. Our analyses demonstrate that 9 complexity indices (i.e.,mean word length, type–token ratio, percentage of high-frequency words, mean sentence length, clausesper sentence, syntactic depth, proportion of subordinate clauses, and proportion of relative clauses)changed significantly over the course of the program; the same 9 indices showed significant correlationwith the initial curricular placement, and all—with the exception of clauses per sentence—modestly orhighly correlated with the final rating on the proficiency test. The findings confirm the usefulness of complexity measures in tracking writing development in L2 Russian.

Keywords: L2 writing development; L2 proficiency; lexical complexity; syntactic complexity; L2 Russian

What Does Explicit Knowledge Look Like? An Analysis of Information Structure in Rule Formation by L2Learners and Its Relationship With Guided Inductive Learning

Paul A. Malovrh, University of South Carolina, Department of Languages, Literatures, and Cultures, 1620 College Street,Columbia, SC 29208 E-mail: malovrh@mailbox.sc.edu

James F. Lee, Texas Tech University, Department of Classical and Modern Languages and Literatures, 2906 18th Street,Lubbock, TX 79409 E-mail: james3.lee@ttu.edu

Abstract Research examining rule formation and second language (L2) explicit knowledge during guided in-ductive instruction has focused on co-constructed metalanguage or depth of processing (DoP) usingthink-aloud protocols, but without analyzing rule features. Studies have not focused on the architectureof the rules that L2 learners create individually. The present study provides a research design that elicitsrules in purposeful tasks controlled for uniformity across multiple participants (N=20), establishing a framework to analyze explicit knowledge according to information structure and its relationship withlanguage processing. Qualitative analyses yielded 4 main findings: (a) L2 explicit knowledge is learnablefrom guided induction, (b) it can be analyzed for information structure, (c) more complete informa-tion structure reflects greater DoP, and (d) explicit knowledge varies in its written information structurebased on rule completeness, linguistic features included, and the order in which linguistic features are mentioned.

Keywords: information structure; grammar rules; guided induction instruction; depth of processing;second-language Spanish; computer-assisted language learning

Intentional and Incidental VocabularyLearning: The Role of HistoricalLinguistics in the Second LanguageClassroom

James M. Stratton, The University of British Columbia, Department of English Language and Literatures, 397–1873 East Mall,Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1, Canada E-mail: james.stratton@ubc.ca

Abstract Although English and German are both Germanic languages, due to various historical changes, manyof their cognates are no longer easily recognizable. This study examined whether knowledge of lan-guage history can be beneficial to learners when learning English–German cognates. Thirty-five English-speaking second language (L2) learners of 3rd-semester German at an American university were assigned to either an intentional or incidental learning condition. The intentional group received explicit instruc-tion on 2 historical sounds shifts (Second Germanic Sound Shift, Ingvaeonic Palatalization) and relevanthistorical semantic changes. In contrast, the incidental group carried out various activities that exposed learners to cognates through reading and oral communication tasks. Results indicate that the intentionalgroup significantly outperformed the incidental group, suggesting that knowledge of language historycan be beneficial to learners when learning historically related languages. Declarative knowledge of thehistorical changes led to significantly greater vocabulary gains and it also provided learners with a toolkit to correctly predict the meaning of several cognates they had not previously encountered before.This study has broad implications for vocabulary learning, language teaching, and applied historicallinguistics.

Keywords: vocabulary learning; explicit instruction; instructed second language acquisition; applied historical linguistics; German

期刊简介

The MLJ is an international refereed journal that is dedicated to promoting scholarly exchange among researchers and teachers of all modern foreign languages and English as a second language. The journal is particularly committed to publishing high quality work in non-English languages. 

《现代语言杂志》是一本国际性的评介期刊，致力于促进所有现代外语和英语作为第二语言的研究人员和教师之间的学术交流语言。该杂志特别致力于以非英语语言出版高质量的作品。

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